Serbian Church in History
By Very
Reverend Dr. Radomir Popovic
Serbian Church in History
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Srpska Crkva u Istoriji
STAMPAJTE I CITAJTE NA SRPSKOM
TABLE OF
CONTENTS
BEGINNINGS
TIMES OF SAINT SAVA
THE ARCHBISHOPRIC
THE SERBIAN PATRIARCHATE
TURKISH ENSLAVEMENT
RENEWAL OF THE PATRIARCHATE OF
PEC
POPULAR UPRISINGS AGAINST THE
TURKS
MIGRATIONS
ABOLISHMENT OF THE PATRIARCHATE OF
PEC
SERBIAN CHURCH FROM 1766 TO
1920
ADDENDA
BEGINNINGS
Serbs belong to the
grand family of Slav nations. As early as 5th and 6th centuries AD they
migrated from their ancient lands in Northern Europe to the Balkan
Peninsular which, at the time, constituted northern regions of the
Byzantine Empire. There they found a mostly deserted, devastated and
pillaged territory since, prior to their arrival, it had been affected by
the Grand Migration of the Euro-Asian peoples in 4th and 5th centuries
AD.
Being pagan, the South
Slav nations considerably contributed towards the destruction of the
Christian Church organization which, in its turn, had functioned well on
the Balkan Peninsular several centuries before their arrival.
It is without doubt
that first Christian influences on the Serbs occurred after their arrival
to the Balkans. Of course, Serbs were not the first pagan nation in this
region to have come into contact with Christianity; one should also
mention the Goths, Huns, Langobards, Avars, Gepids, Herulians…
Very early upon their
arrival Slavs, i.e. Serbs inhabiting northern regions of Byzantium, had
shown willingness to stay in the area indefinitely. This decision to stay
might have been taken during the rule of Emperor Justinian (527-565) if
not even earlier.
Adoption of
Christianity in the already mostly Christianised Europe was, as far as the
Slav tribes were concerned, a long and a complex process, but, at the same
time, an unavoidable one. The neighbouring environment of Serbs, Bulgars,
Croats and others had become Christian centuries before. Being pagan,
these Slav nations sharply stood out against this christianized milieu and
it was only a matter of time and circumstances before they also would
become Christian.
According to a
Byzantine writer, the emperor-historian Constantine VII (913-959), Serbian
tribes adopted the new faith very slowly, i.e. it took them quite a while
to renounce their ancient pagan customs and convictions. Same author
recorded that the first occurrence of an en-masse baptism among the Serbs
happened during the reign of Emperor Heraclius (610-641). First Christian
missionaries among the Serbs came from the East, arriving from renowned
Byzantine Christian and spiritual centres such as Constantinople and
Thessalonica. However, there is no doubt that Christian influences also
arrived from Adriatic coastal towns where, despite barbarian devastations,
a pre-Slav church organization still remained well intact.
Serb tribes were
finally all baptized after spending more than two hundred years in their
newly inhabited homeland; Christian faith and Church organization
developed to such an extent that it was not possible to talk about
Christian spirituality and culture in the real sense of those words. In
other words, it is possible to follow a historical development of
Christianity among Serbs as a Christian European nation. Serb adoption of
Christian faith ran parallel to the process of the establishment of their
first organized state during the first half of 9th century. Christian and
spiritual enlighteners of Serbs, as well as other Slav nations, were the
Holy brothers Cyril and Methodius - Equals to the Apostles. It is thought that the baptism of
Serbs occurred during the reign of Knez Mutimir (before the year 891).
Bulgars had been baptized several years prior to that point in time. This
was the time of the rise of the Frankish medieval state in Western Europe
and, simultaneously, the rise in grand power of the bishops of Rome, i.e.
the popes. It is precisely around this time that the ambitious pope
Nicholas I (+867) tried, with the aid of the Franks, to subdue the whole
of Balkan Peninsular and place it under the spiritual jurisdiction, which
he had been deprived of back in 732 owing to the iconoclastic crisis
within the Church itself. Immediately after, or simultaneous to the
baptism of Bulgars in 864, the Christian mission of the Holy brothers in
Moravia - the state of Knez Rastislav - took place.
That which crucially
effected baptism of not only the Serbs but also other Slav nations was the
invention of the Slavonic script, i.e. Glagolitic and Cyrillic alphabet,
around the middle of the 9th century. Beginnings of literacy among Slavs
are closely connected with their adoption of Christianity in their own
popular language. It has rightly been said long ago that the very first
words written in Slav language and script came from the Bible: "In the
beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God. And the Word was God;
and without Him nothing was made that was made…" (John I;1-3). Bible was
immediately translated from Greek into Slavonic, as were all the necessary
ecclesiastical offices, i.e. service books. Therefore, in-depth
christianization of the Slavs began not in Greek language or, even less
so, in Latin but in the popular Slavonic language, the language and the
script that would soon become third (after Greek and Latin) on the list of
the most commonly used languages in the contemporary world.
It is also an important
fact that the Serbs adopted Christianity during the reign of Knez Mutimir,
when Emperor Basil I the Macedonian (867-886) ruled Byzantium, and when
Photius was Patriarch of Constantinople. It was Photius who blessed the
Holy brothers and their disciples in their endeavour to christanise the
South Slavs. It had been rightly said that Photius had become the
Godfather of all Slavs. It should be said that there was a real threat at
the time that all newly baptised South Slav nations: Serbs, Bulgars,
Croats would be placed under Roman, i.e. Papal, spiritual jurisdiction.
This was eventually accomplished with Croats.
First dioceses in
Serbian lands are mentioned in 9th century. In 878 Beograd we have bishop
Sergius, whilst in the Dicoese of Branicevo (Branychevo) we have another
Slav, bisho Agathon. Some time later, in 10th century, documents mention
bishops in Ston, Ras, Lipljan (Liplyan), Nis (Nish), Prizren and some
other towns which had been bishoprics even before the arrival of
Slavs.
Consolidation of
Christianity among the Serbs before the age of St. Sava owed its success
to the fact that Church services and sermons were delivered in the popular
language of the time, which was the only one understood by the public at
large. After the death of St. Methodius, bishop of Pannonia (885),
Frankish-Latin clergy expelled his disciples from Moravia, reason being
that these disciples did not agree to preach Christian faith in Latin. It
should be remembered that Latin was a language foreign to the local
population. Thus, the expelled disciples of Cyril and Methodius suddenly
found themselves in those Balkan regions that were occupied by Bulgars,
Serbs, and Croats. Prominent among them were Clement and Naum, both of
whom were active for several decades in the regions of Lakes Ohrid
(Ochrdi) and Prespa. They nurtured and developed Slavonic literacy,
educated and trained native clergy who, in their turn, went among ordinary
people and thus conveyed faith to the local population.
"Diocese of Velic"
(Velich) is the first purely Slav diocese to be mentioned in historical
documents, and its first bishop, from 893, was St. Clement himself. This
diocese was under jurisdiction of the already established autonomous
Bulgarian Church (870). Some time later a Patriarchate was formed within
the state ruled by Emperor Samuel (976-1014), its See being in Ohrid.
However, Byzantine Emperor Basil II the Bulgar-Slayer destroyed this
short-lived empire in 1018 and degraded the Patriarchate to the level of
an Archbishopric. Since then, archbishops of Ohrid had to be only Greeks
and were to be appointed by Byzantine emperors themselves. Before the life
and times of St. Sava (1219) all dioceses in Serbia were under spiritual
jurisdiction of the Archbishopric of Ohrid.
Serbian tribes in Zeta,
i.e. Duklja (Duklya, Doclea), including the Littoral, were united in 9th
century into a single state - Zeta, known earlier under its old name
Duklja. King of Duklja was Jovan (John) Vladimir (+1016), Emperor
Samuilo's (Samuel) son-in-law (he married emperor's daughter Kosara). He
came to be acknowledged as the very first Serbian ruler-saint by the
virtue of his righteous martyrdom and his exposition of Christian
patience. Holy King Jovan Vladimir was initially laid in the church of the
Holy Theotokos of Krajina (Krayina). Today, his holy relics are to be
found in a church in Elabasan, Albania ("Sin Jon")
By the middle of the
11th century Duklja liberated itself from Byzantine rule. In 1077
Vojislav's (Voyslav) son Mihailo (Michael, 1051-1081) managed to acquire
king's crown from the Bishop of Rome, who in 1067 installed an archbishop
in the town of Bar. All this occurred almost immediately after Rome had
separated from the Church in 1054 and signaled a serious threat of a
Latinisation of Serbian lands under the influence of the Archbishopric of
Bar. This was prevented only in 1183 when the Grand Zupan (Zhupan) of Raska (Rashka, Rascia)
Stefan Nemanja (Stephan Nemanya) incorporated Zeta into his state, which
was, in its turn, and since its establishment, under Byzantine spiritual,
cultural and ecclesiastical influence.
Serbian lands in
regions of Bosna (Bosnia) and Hercegovina (Herzegovina) became independent
under the reign of Ban Kulin (1180-1204). Bosna was
geographically far removed from Byzantium and its direct influence. A much
stronger political and spiritual influence often came from neighbouring
Hungary, which was a Roman Catholic kingdom. As far as the Orthodox
Christian Church in Bosna and Hercegovina was concerned, it was, from the
beginnings of Serb christianisation, included into the same Church
organisation which was later (early 13th century) to be definitely
structured by St. Sava. Ecclesiastical officers were carried out in
Slavonic, and all of literature was in Slavonic. The sparse Roman Catholic
population of Bosna was under jurisdiction of the dioceses of Split, Bar,
or Dubrovnik. It should also be said that the influence exercised by these
dioceses on the local population was very slight, almost unnoticeable.
Orthodox clergy in Bosna kept their titles as named by the old popular
custom, and this practice continued throughout medieval times. Thus,
bishop was called djed (dyed), archpriest gost, and presbyter starac (starats). The
whole of clergy, i.e. hierarchy, were called strojnici (stroynitsi), i.e.
those entrusted to run the Church. Monasticism was also present and
monastic life was actualized according to the monastic rules of St. Basil
the Great (379) which were coenobite in their character - monks lived in a
monastic community headed by an abbot.
When talking about the
Orthodox Church in medieval Bosna and Hercegovina it should be mentioned
that there is a rising tendency among contemporary historians to dismiss
as erroneous a century old opinion, which attempted to affirm existence of
the so-called “Bosnian Church” in medieval times. This church was
apparently Bogumil, i.e. heretic (Patarin), in its character. Such
Manichaean-Paulician heresies were present both within the borders of the
Byzantine Empire and in the West (especially so in the South of France).
Briefly — there are no domestic, i.e. autochthonous sources that mention
anything about any existence of either Bogumils or their church in
medieval Bosna. It is true that Latin sources in Dubrovnik, and of Western
provenience in general, mention the so-called Patarines, schismatics,
heretics, and Bogumils in Bosna. Furthermore, the same sources say that
these heretics refused to yield and accept spiritual jurisdiction of the
Church of Rome. When taking into consideration sources of this kind we
should always be aware that contemporary Latin sources also called the
Orthodox Church in Nemanjic Serbia both schismatic and heretic, and all
because it was not Roman Catholic. It should also be remembered that the
whole of the Orthodox Church in Serbian lands after their fall under
Turkish rule came under spiritual jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Pec
(Pech), and this, of course, included Bosna and Hercegovina. There are no
traces of any mention of Bogumils in the official records of this
Patriarchate and this is probably the best indication that there were no
Bogumils in Bosna and Hercegovina at all.
.
The tower of Chilandar
Monastery - Serb monastery on Mount Athos
Studenica Monastery - in the heart of Serbian Christian tradition
TIMES OF SAINT SAVA
By the end of 12th
century, Grand Zupan of Raska Stefan Nemanja (Stephan Nemanya, 1169-1196)
managed to unite most Serbian lands into a single state. In his foreign
policy he opted for Byzantium, although he went to war with it several
times. It is also very important that he opted for Byzantine spiritual
(Orthodox-Christian) and cultural influences too. Stefan Nemanja was a
devoutly religious person and from the very beginnings unreservedly keen
on Eastern Orthodoxy, which had, without any doubt, already set firm roots
in his lands and among his people centuries before. Even today there stand
churches and monasteries which were founded by him. They represent a clear
sign of his religious zeal: monastery of the Holy Theotokos (Sveta
Bogorodica) and monastery of Saint Nicholas (Sveti Nikola) in Toplica;
monastery called George's Pillars (Djurdjevi stupovi) in the vicinity o f
Ras and Novi Pazar; church of Saint Panteleimon (Svetog Pantelejmona) in
Nis; church of the Holy Archangel (Sveti Arhangel) in Skoplje. He also
built the famous Studenica (Studenitsa) monastery, which has rightly been
named "mother of all Serbian churches". It was in this monastery that
Stefan Nemanja had taken his monastic vows and it was there that his body
was laid when brought back from Hilandar monastery. It is still to be
found there today.
It is essential to
consider the person and accomplishments of Saint Sava, the first Serbian
Archbishop (+1236), when reflecting upon Serbian Christianity and not only
when medieval times are concerned. Stefan Nemanja had three sons: Vukan,
Stefan and Rastko. Having been born around 1175, Rastko (Saint Sava's
baptismal name) was youngest of the three.
Since the days of his
early childhood he exhibited an affinity towards Christian devotion and
book reading. It is not, therefore, by coincidence that at the age of 16,
and against his parent's wishes, he had left the court accompanied by a
Russian monk and entered the monastery of Saint Panteleimon (the old Rusik
monastery) on Mount Athos — the Holy Mountain. It is there that he took
monastic vows and became monk Sava. From the very beginnings of his
monastic days he unreservedly dedicated himself to austere asceticism and
devout prayer thus swiftly gaining attention of all monastic communities
on Mount Athos, especially so for being a member of a royal
family.
The aged Stefan Nemanja
soon followed his son's example and footsteps. He abdicated his title at a
nobleman's assembly in Ras in 1196 and chose his middle son Stefan as his
successor. Immediately upon doing so he took monastic vows and,
accompanied by his son Sava, spent the rest of his life in peace and
monastic tranquility of the Holy Mountain as Simeon the monk.
Living on the Holy
Mountain, father and son attracted attention not only as devoted monks,
but also as founders and donators of many a monastery on Mount Athos.
Establishment of the Serbian monastery of Hilandar on Mount Athos came as
a natural consequence to such activity on their part. Hilandar was built
in 1199 on a site occupied by an older, previously abandoned monastery.
Only a year later, on the day of February 13th 1200, Simeon the monk
departed from this life. Council of monks of the Holy Mountain immediately
had him canonized as Saint Simeon the Myrovlyete. His son Sava composed a
Service to him and also wrote his biography. Saint Sava also wrote the
Typikon* of Karyes for monastic use at the Karyes hermitage of Saint Sabas
the Sanctified. Furthermore, he was the author of the Hilandar Typikon
which he based upon the one in use at the Monastery of the Most Holy
Theotokos in Constantinople. This Typikon is in effect even today in the
monastery of Hilandar.
During the lifetime of
Saint Sava the whole of the Holy Mountain, including monastery Hilandar,
felt severe repercussions of the Fourth Crusade, when Latin armies sacked
the capital city of Byzantium — City of Constantinople, and established
the so-called "Latin Empire" (1204-1261). During the course of these
events, Latin crusaders also pillaged many a monastery on the Holy
Mountain. Taking safety precautions, and intending to effect
reconciliation among his brothers who were in conflict back home, Saint
Sava relocated the body of Saint Simeon and laid it in the monastery
Studenica in 1208. Then he composed the Studenica Typikon, very similar in
its contents to the one he introduced in Hilandar. Sava was archimandrite*
in Studenica until 1217. Taking into consideration that Saint Sava
ceaselessly traveled Serbian lands, taught Orthodox faith, spread literacy
and religious zeal, built churches and monasteries, educated and trained
priests, monks and teachers, it is considered that Saint Sava's stay in
Serbia on that occasion was one of the most fruit-bearing of all. It is
from this period of life that many a story and legend about him came into
existence, depicting him as the illuminator and the teacher of the Serbian
nation as a whole, a miracle-worker, and deliverer of the sick, the poor
and the destitute.
Until the appearance of
Saint Sava the Church in Serbian lands had been under the spiritual
jurisdiction of the Archbishopric of Ohrid. Sources mention only three
dioceses: Ras, Prizren and Lipljan, and all three were headed by Greek
bishops. Accordingly, Saint Sava decided to make the Church in Serbia
fully independent and to recruit and train local priests, monks and
bishops. This was not an easy task since Serbia at that time felt great
pressure both from the south (Latin Empire) and the north (Roman Catholic
Hungary).
Grand Zupan Stefan,
Sava's brother, was in 1217 compelled to receive his royal blessing form
the pope in Rome. That same year, by no coincidence, Sava left Serbia to
take up residence in Hilandar once again. It is from there that he
journeyed to Nicaea to visit the Byzantine Emperor Theodore Lascaris and
Patriarch of Constantinople Manuel, both of whom had taken refuge there
after the fall of Constantinople to the Latins. His intention was to
negotiate with them on the matter of independence (autocephality) for the
Church in Seriba. His petition for autocephality was granted, this being
the best possible solution when considering general circumstances in the
region. In Nicaea Sava was ordained archbishop of the Church in Serbia
receiving the title "Archbishop of Serbian and Maritime Lands".
Thus, almost four
centuries after having adopted Christianity the Serbian nation received
its spiritual independence — Church autocephality. This international and
ecclesiastic recognition confirmed Serb spiritual maturity and ability as
a nation to have its own Church organisation according to the model
already set by other Eastern autocephalous Churches (those of Jerusalem,
Alexandria, Antioch).
After completing his
task in Nicaea, Saint Sava returned to Serbia via Hilandar where he
stopped to pick up his best disciple-monks, whom he foresaw as future
bishops in Serbia. He also made a stopover in Thessalonica where he
managed to complete the Krmcija (Krmchya, Constitution) which regulated
legislation concerning the newly independent Serbian Church. One of Saint
Sava’s first tasks was to bring this Constitution to life. Apart from the
three existing dioceses, Sava immediately established eight new ones:
Diocese of Zica (Zhicha, which became the See of the Archbishopric of
Serbia), and dioceses of Zeta, Hvostan, Hum, Topolica (Toplitsa), Budimlje
(Budimlye), Dabar and Moravica (Moravista). Each of these dioceses had
located its See in a monastery. Their founders and donators richly endowed
these monasteries. All of them owned extensive land — fields, forests,
vineyards, pasture, orchards etc. in order to be able to support their
very important spiritual and educational mission among the people. Each of
the newly ordained bishops received his own copy of Krmcija, which was to
direct him in exercising his rights and duties.
On the day of the Feast
of Ascension of Our Lord in 1221 a State-Church Council was held in Zica
monastery, which was the See of the Archbishopric. On that occasion Saint
Sava crowned his brother Stefan Prvovencani** (Stephan Prvovenchany) as
first king of the Serbs, thus making Serbia a kingdom. After the ceremony,
Saint Sava held his famous “Sermon of Zica” in which he extensively
elaborated on Orthodox faith. He taught the king, nobility, newly ordained
bishops, abbots, and all that gathered basic truths of the Orthodox
Christian faith, which were founded upon the Bible, deeds of the Holy
Fathers, Oecumenical and local Church Councils.
Of course, all these
changes and new moments in Church and State affairs in Serbia could not go
ahead so smoothly, i.e. without problems from within and without. First
obstacle to Saint Sava’s accomplishments came from the Archbishopric of
Ohrid, headed by the learned Demetrius Khomatian who delivered a written
objection to Saint Sava. He accused “Sava the Monk” for leaving the Holy
Mountain to “return to the world”, and for making himself an archbishop
without his (Khomatian’s) knowledge and explicit approval. However, these
accusations could not hold water, since Saint Sava always took meticulous
care to honour all Church rules and canons before taking action to change
Serbian internal structure and international posture when both State and
Church affairs were concerned.
First Serbian king,
Stefan Prvovencani, took monastic vows in his old age, thus following in
his father’s and his younger brother’s footsteps. He died as Simon the
Monk in 1228, and his body rests even today in monastery Studenica. His
son Radoslav succeeded him on the throne. It was during the first year of
his reign that Saint Sava decided to undertake his first journey to the
Holy Land (1229). This event was not only a personal act of pilgrimage. It
meant a great deal for the whole of the Serbian Church, then a young
Archbishopric. Saint Sava visited Jerusalem and the monastery of Saint
Sabas the Consecrated. He purchased monastery of Saint George in Akona and
monastery of Saint John the Theologian in Zion, both to be inhabited by
Serbian monks. Saint Sava utilised his stay in these and other monasteries
to learn their monastic rules and constitutions so that these could be
applied in churches and monasteries of Serbia. From then on, the Serbian
Church was more influenced by the Typikon of Jerusalem than that of the
monastery of Studion of Constantinople. Saint Sava returned to Serbia
bearing great gifts of icons, oil lamps, priestly vestments, church
decorations, books, holy relics, etc.
In 1233 there occurred
a change on the royal throne in Serbia. After a period of short
disturbances Radoslav’s brother and Saint Sava’s nephew Vladislav was
crowned king. This internal crisis was quickly overcome due to Saint
Sava’s undisputed spiritual authority and reputation.
Apart from being a
great Christian and a spiritual leader, wise and practical, Saint Sava
knew how to make shrewd estimates on what was good and beneficial for the
future life of the Church and the people. Sava entered a mature age. The
end of his fruit-bearing earthly life was nearing and he knew this well.
He thus decided, in the interest of the Church and the State, to undertake
another journey and not only to the Holy Land, but also to other
sanctuaries of the East. Possibly feeling that he would not return alive
form this journey, he abdicated his archbishop’s throne at the occasion of
the Church council in 1233 and appointed Arsenius of Srem (+1266) to be
his successor. Taking such and similar precautions in order to insure the
safety of the Church he departed for Holy Land during the spring of 1234.
This time he visited Alexandria and Patriarch Nicholas, ancient
monasteries of Egypt, Mount Sinai and monasteries located there. He took
the return journey via Jerusalem, Antioch and Constantinople, where he
procured many a needy thing for the Church back home. He left
Constantinople to travel through Bulgaria and to meet the Bulgarian
Emperor John Asen in Trnovo. He celebrated his last Holy liturgy one day
ahead of the Feast of Epiphany in 1236 never to return to Serbia alive. He
became ill and died in Trnovog on the 14th/27th of January and his body
was laid in one of the local churches. His nephew, King Vladislav, managed
to move his body back to Serbia and to have it entombed on the on the
6th/19th of May 1237 in the church that he (King Vladislav) intended to be
his own mausoleum — that of monastery Mileseva (Milesheva).
Gradac
Monastery - endowement of the Serbian queen Helen de Anjoy, 13th
century
THE ARCHBISHOPRIC
Serbian Church existed
as an Archbishopric from 1219-1346. During that period twelve consecutive
archbishops occupied the throne of Saint Sava and each of them headed the
Church during the reign of some of the most famous kings of Nemanjic
(Nemanyich) Dynasty.
Archbishopric See was
originally in monastery Zica, but in 1252, owing to impending dangers of
Tatar and Kuman invasions, it was, for security reasons, moved to Pec
(Pech) — a monastery located at the entrance to the remote Rugova Canyon.
All archbishops heading the Serbian Church were experienced spiritual
fathers and monks who were previously abbots either at Hilandar or at
Studenica monasteries. Two of them, Nicodim (1317-1324, Nicodemus) and
Danilo II (1324-1337, Daniel), both archbishops during reigns of King
Milutin and King Stefan Decanski, were prominent literary authors and
translators. Archbishop Danilo II, previously abbot of Hilandar and a
diplomat, left behind him his famous “Biographies of Serbian Kings and
Archbishops”, known also as “Ancient Books” (Knjige Starostavne). Period
of the Archbishopric coincided with the epoch in Serbian history when many
a famous king ruled the Serbian Kingdom: King Vladislav (1233-1243), King
Uros I (1243-1276, Urosh), King Dragutin (1276-1282). Numerous famous
monasteries were erected then: Mileseva (founder and patron — King
Vladislav), Sopocani (Sopochany; 1265, founder and patron — King Uros),
Moraca (Moracha; 1252, founder and patron Knez Stefan), King Dragutin’s
memorials were monasteries Raca (Racha), Tronosa (Tronosha), Lovnica
(Lovnitsa), Ozren, and Tavna. King Milutin (1282-1321) built the Church of
the Theotokos (Bogorodicina crkva) in Skoplje, the new Hilandar church,
Theotokos of Ljevis (Lyevish, Bogorodica Ljeviska) in Prizren, Old
Nagoricano (1313, Nagorichano, Staro Nagoricano), Banjska (Banyska,
1313-1317), Gracanica (Grachanytsa, 1315), The Holy Archangels (1311,
Sveti Arhandjeli) in Jerusalem. King Stefan Decanski built monastery
Decani (1327-1331, Dechany).
Serbian lands greatly
increased in their proportions during the reigns of Kings Dragutin,
Milutin, Stefan Decanski, and, especially so, during the reign of King
Dusan (Dushan). Parallel to the territorial growth of the state, so grew
the total number of dioceses of the Serbian Archbishopric. During the
lifetime of Saint Sava there were eleven. Those newly formed dioceses of:
Lipljan, Koncul (Konchul), Lim, Macva (Machva), Branicevo (Branychevo),
Beograd, and Skoplje (Skoplye). Serbian state was territorially the
largest during the reign of Emperor Dusan (1331-1355). It was the largest
and the most powerful among the contemporary states in the whole of the
Balkans. Serbs occupied Thessaly, the region from the Holy Mountain to
Christopolis, Epirus and Albania. King Dusan proclaimed himself Emperor in
1346. Byzantium was greatly weakened by internal crisis and Dusan strove
to substitute once powerful Byzantine by his own Serbo-Byzantine Empire.
He considered himself the Emperor of Serbs and Greeks. In order to
legitimise his title he needed to elevate the Serbian Archbishopric to the
level of a Patriarchate. This was done on the occasion of a Church-State
council held in Skoplje in 1346, on the day of the Feast of the Entrance
of Our Lord into Jerusalem. Council was attended by the Bulgarian
Patriarch Simeon, Archbishop of Ohrid Nicholas, abbots and elders of the
Holy Mountain, as well as those Greek bishops and metropolitans whose
dioceses were included in the newly enlarged Serbian state. Council
elevated the Archbishopric to a Patriarchate and the first Serbian
patriarch was Joanikije I (Joannicius) carrying the title “Patriarch of
Serbian and Maritime Lands”. On the Eastern day of 1346, seven days after
the above mentioned Church council was held, Dusan was crowned first
Serbian Emperor by the Patriarch. His son, Uros “Nejaki” (“The Frail”) was
crowned King. Archbishopric of Ohrid was second in honour after the
Serbian Patriarchate. Dioceses of Raska, Zeta, Prizren and Skoplje were
elevated to Metropolitanates, first in honour among them being
Metropolitanate of Skoplje, since Skoplje was the Capital of the
Empire.
Emperor Dusan,
accompanied by his wife Empress Jelena (Yellena, Helen), visited the Holy
Mountain and richly endowed all monasteries there. This event was recorded
in Greek and Serbian languages and could be found contained by many a
charter existing even today on the Holy Mountain. Hilandar was most richly
endowed, as were the Karyes Hermitage of St. Sabas and the Holy Archangels
in Jerusalem. Emperor’s chief memorial was the monastery of the Holy
Archangels near Prizren (1347) which also served as his mausoleum
(1355).
Emperor Dusan is also
remembered by his famous zakonik (Dushan’s Legislature) which was adopted
by the State Assembly in Skoplje (1349), and developed by the Assembly in
Ser (1354). This Legislature is considered to be one of the best and most
perfect legislative acts of the period in Europe. For example, Article 172
of this Legislature — and not according to their fear of Our opinon and
will”. First 38 articles of this Legislature are exclusively concerned
with the Church. Patriarch’s title was similar to that of the Emperor: “By
the Grace of God Archbishop of All Serbian and Maritime Lands”. According
to medieval law, Patriarch’s Court was considered a place of sanctuary
(refuge) for all those seeking protection from the State.
A few years after the
Serbian Patriarchate was established there came a reaction to it in a form
of an official objection from Byzantium, since the Byzantine Empire felt
that its interests were damaged by Emperor Dusan’s political actions.
Emperor John Cantakuzenos, once Dusan’s friend and collaborator, now
became his opponent. He persuaded Callistus, Patriarch of Constantinople,
to anathematize Serbian Emperor, Serbian Patriarch, Church and the people,
and this was done in 1353. It was said that the basic reason for such an
action was to safeguard “dignity and cities”, i.e. to protest against
Serbian Archbishopric becoming a Patriarchate, and against such actions by
which Greek bishops were substituted by Serbs in those cities that Dusan
took from Byzantium.
Empero Dusan himself
tried to reconcile with the Patriarchate of Constantinople. Negotiations
in such a direction were continued after his sudden death (December 20th,
1355). The new Byzantine Emperor John V sent Patriarch Callistus to the
court of Empress dowager Helen (who after her husband’s death became a nun
and changed her name to Elisabeth) at the city of Ser to negotiate a
reconciliation in face of an imminent danger both Byzantium and Serbia
were faced with — that danger was the Ottoman Turks. It happened that
Patriarch Callistus took ill and died in Ser, and that his funeral was
officiated by those priests whom he himself had once
anathematized.
The process of
reconciliation lasted for years, and a partial agreement was reached first
(a particular unity) with the region of Ser, i.e. that part of Serbian
Empire ruled by Despot* Ugljesa Mrnjavcevic (1368, Uglyesha
Mrnyavchevich). His domain was first to be directly threatened by the
Turks. Final reconciliation was envisaged and achieved by monks of the
Holy Mountain, those of Greek and Serbian provenience, since they both
lived and prayed together. A monk delegation headed by a Serbian elder
Isaija (Isaiah) and hieromonk Nikodim Grcic (Nikodemus Grchich) first
visited Knez Lazar’s court in Serbia where it also met with Patriarch Sava
IV. In 1375 the same delegation proceeded to Constantinople. An agreement
was reached whereby canonical validity of the Serbian Patriarchate was
recognised by Constantinople. Two of its representatives were dispatched
to Prizren where they celebrated the Holy Liturgy in the monastery of the
Holy Archangels, and, thus, officially lifted the previously imposed
anathema.
After Emperor Dusan’s
death in 1355 Serbia could not offer a strong ruling personality that
could manage to keep together the vast Serbian Empire. Regional Lords
became completely independent and tended to ignore central authority
embodied by Emperor Uros “the Frail”, the last ruler of Nemanjic dynasty.
Internal disunity and unavoidable external danger of Ottoman invasion
became Serbian reality. During his lifetime even Emperor Dusan took some
limited military action against Turks. One of the most important Serbian
military defeats happened on September 26th 1371 at the battle of Marica
(Marytsa) where both King Vukasin (Vukashyn) and his brother Despot
Ugljesa lost their lives. Emperor Uros died by the end of the same year.
It became clear that it was only a matter of time before decentralized
Serbian lands would fall prey to the Mohammedan invader.
Some Serbian lands
eventually came to be centralised again, this time under the rule of Knez
Lazar Hrebeljanovic (Hrebelyanovich) who, himself, did not belong to the
Nemanjic dynasty, but his wife Milica (Mylitsa) did. He proved to be the
most energetic among nobles in defending Serbian statehood and Nemanjic
spiritual heritage. North-east region of Morava and Danube river valleys
now became heartlands of the new state where many of the important
monasteries were to be built: Ravanica (1381, Ravanytsa), Lazarica
(Lazarytsa), Gornjak (Gornyak), Ljubostinja (Lyubostinya) etc. Battle of
the Field of Kosovo (28th/15th June 1389) proved to be crucial to the
future of the Serbian nation. Knez Lazar lost both this battle and his
life to the Ottoman Turks, together with most of his nobility, lesser
nobility and soldiers. It was an honourable defeat since their resistance
to the invader proved to be a consciously Christian act of martyrdom
against militarily far superior forces of the foe. This sacrifice is even
more noteworthy if one considers the lack of readiness on part of some
other Serbian noblemen to follow Knez Lazar’s example.
Not all Serbian lands
came under Ottoman rule immediately after the battle of the Field of
Kosovo, but Serbia became a tributary state to the Turks. Two Serbian
patriarchs, Spiridon (Spyridon) and Jefrem (Ephraem), are mentioned as
contemporaries to these events. Jefrem was a great ascetic and an
anchorite monk — a hesycast. It is important to say that hesychasm, as a
spiritual movement, took deep roots in Serbia precisely during Knez
Lazar’s rule since he, himself, took a great deal of interest in it. Many
of the monks fleeing from the Ottoman peril in the East took refuge in
Knez Lazar’s Serbia. There is evidence of considerable hesychastic
spiritual influence on Serbian literature, icon painting, and sacred
architecture of the time. Only strong and unrelenting faith could give
spiritual and moral meaning to the life of the nation after the defeat of
Kosovo.
Knez Lazar’s successor
to the throne was his son Stefan Lazarevic (+1427, Stephan Lazarevich)
under whose rule Serbia came to recover as a state managing also to
restore its economy. Stefan received title of despot after the successful
outcome of his participation at the battle of Angora in 1402. Spiritual
and economic recovery of Despot Stefan’s Serbia is best witnessed by his
memorials — monasteries of Manasija (Manasya) or Resava, Kalenic
(Kalenych) etc., which were all built in the distinct Serbo-Byzantine
architectural style.
Manasija became a great
spiritual and educational centre of the Despotate. “Resava school”, as a
style in literature, art and architecture, became a symbol of learning for
centuries to come. This school engaged a great number of learned monks —
writers, biographers, scribes, copyists and translators. It was a centre
of literacy and spread its influence all the way to Russia and Rumania.
Metropolitan Cyprian of the Russian Orthodox Church came from Serbia, as
did Gregory Tzamblak — Metropolitan of Kiev, previously abbot of Decani
(author of the Biography of St. Stefan Decanski). Serbian monk Pahomije
(Pachomius) was also a well-known contemporary who became famous in Russia
as a writer. Despot Stefan’s court was moved to Beograd, which became the
principal town of Serbia. He was a very learned nobleman; he read a lot
and was, himself, a successful author. His became famous for his passage
“Slovo Ljubve”*.
Despot Djuradj
Brankovic (1427-1456, George Brankovich) was one of the last Serbian
rulers before the final fall under Turkish yoke in 1459. His was the last
attempt to defend Serbia against the aggressor. Despot Djuradj was known
for his strong and decisive faith in God as well as for his faithfulness
to the rich spiritual and national heritage. He refused to accept Union
with the Roman Catholics (Councils of Ferrara and Florence 1438-1439) who
gave false promises of military assistance against Turks. His significant
answer to the Franciscan John Capistranus was as follows: “Ninety years of
my life I have lived with this faith that had been poured into my soul by
my ancestors and have, as a result, been considered a wise, although
unfortunate, man by my people. Now you would like them to think, if I
should change, that I have become senile of old age and, as the commoners
say, infantile. I would rather agree to die than betray the faith of my
ancestors”. Patriarchal See was moved from monasteries Pec and Zica to the
last free bastion — to the fortress of Smederevo.
During the medieval
period Serbian Church had a significant, if not even principal, role in
the lives of every individual and the state as a whole. Relationship
between the Church and the State was natural and harmonious, and was most
often compared to the human organism and the relationship between the soul
and the body. According to his nature man is a harmonious being, if
healthy, of course. Church and State interests were not in conflict but,
rather, mutually compatible. This is a case where the well-known theory of
symphony between Church and State was applied almost to its fullness.
Church was materially and financially completely independent. Every
diocese owned land, priests were entitled to “popovski bir”* and some land
they could cultivate for their own needs. Priestly vocation was most
commonly a hereditary right.
Monasteries and monks
had especially significant and unique roles in the Serbian medieval
society. Monasteries of Studenica, Zica, Pec, Mileseva, Sopocani, Decani,
Ravanica, Manasija, etc., all founded by royal donators, outlived the
State and centuries of captivity. They shine out in a very particular
light and radiate a message witnessing eternal spiritual values which
have, for centuries, served to deliver Serbian people from all calamities
of life and to inspire them during both good and the bad times.
Monasteries, monks and nuns, regardless of living either coenobitic or
solitary lives, best witnessed the practice of life in Christ (as far as
this is at all attainable considering all weaknesses, and shortcomings of
every human being). It is very characteristic of Serbian monasteries that
the have always been open to communal life. They served as open houses for
all those who were in need. There were times when monasteries substituted
schools, hospitals, all kinds of artistic and artisan workshops. They were
often used as a place of refuge from enemy raiding parties, and, last but
no least, they were places of eternal rest — they all had
cemeteries.
Serbs were taught
literacy in order to understand Christianity better. This is why monk Sava
is considered both a saint and a writer. He was emulated by his brother
and king Stefan Prvovencani when he wrote the Biography of St. Simeon, and
also by Domentijan (Domentian) the monk and his Biography of St. Sava, and
Biography of St. Simeon. Their opus was followed by Theodosius the monk
with his Biography of St. Sava and Biography of St. Petar Koriski (Peter
of Korish), and by many other known and unknown monk-authors. They
themselves did not attain literacy just for the sake of becoming literate,
nor did they teach it to others for the same reason. They did this to that
they could enrich their own experience of Christianity and bring salvation
in faith to others. For many of them writing was just another form of
prayer. We shall mention just a few more of these remarkable people:
Archbishop Nicodemus, translator of Typikon; Archbishop Daniel II
(Biographies of Serbian Kings and Archbishops); Patriarch Ephrem;
Patriarch Daniel III; Bishop Mark (Biography of and Service to Patriarch
Ephraem, …); Despot Stefan Lazarevic (Word of Love); Eufemia the nun
(Homage to Knez Lazar); Gregory Tsamblak (Biography of and Service to St.
Stefan Decanski, On the Transfer of Relics of St. Paraskeve); Consantine
the Philosopher (Biography of Despot Stefan, …).
Ravanica
Monastery - founded by St. Prince Lazar
Turkish invasion of Christian lands was a disaster for Balkan peoples
Turkish rule lasted 4-5
centuries and this proved to be the longest period of enslavement in
Serbian history. The problem was deepened by the fact that the culprit,
i.e. the aggressor, was of a different faith. Many a Serb is still
experiencing this slavery, and for some (those that were converted to
Islam) it is never going to end. City of Constantinople and the Byzantine
Empire fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. There quickly followed the fall
of Bulgaria, of the fortress of Smederevo and the Serbian Despotate
(1459), Bosnia (1463), Herzegovina (1482), and Montenegro (Crna Gora) in
1499. Serbian Orthodox Church shared the destiny of its people during
those times that were marked as “cruel and precarious” and when “the
living envied those that were dead”. Serbs had no legal rights whatsoever
as subjects of the Islamic Ottoman Empire. They had to pay special duties
just for the basic right to live in an Islamic state.
As far as the Church
was concerned it could be said that Turkish yoke meant an occurrence of a
long lasting abnormal state of affairs within the Church itself. Last
patriarch to be mentioned was Arsenius II. Council of bishops could not
convene on a regular basis and this meant that it simply became and
impossible task to elect a patriarch. Some contemporary literary sources
illustrated these hard times very well: “Sadness overcame the people and
there occurred such a slaying of Christians as had never been seen
before”. Or: “Resembling flying serpents, Turks burned all villages and
cities … and churches and cities they sacked …” Christian population
attempted to save itself by undertaking mass migrations in face of Turkish
oppression. They took refuge to the north and to the west, across rivers
Sava and Danube, and by doing this they entered territory under Austrian
rule. Roman Catholic Austria did not look kindly upon “schismatic”
(Orthodox) Serbs, but it allowed them to settle the border, barren areas
of its Empire, form a “military frontier” and, thereby, serve as a living
rampart between the Ottomans and the Empire. Included in these mass
migrations of Serbian ordinary folk were also the monks and priests who
carried with them the most significant national and spiritual treasures in
an attempt to have them saved from oblivion. Thus, they carried holy
relics of Serbian saints, books, icons etc. North of rivers Sava and
Danube they established and built new monasteries and churches, which came
to serve as new spiritual centres for Orthodox Serbs. Apart from those
already existing in Banat* (e.g. monasteries Mesic [Mesich] and Zlatica
[Zlatitsa]) more new monasteries were founded in this region: Bazjas
(Bazyash), Bezdan, St. George. On the slopes of Fruska Gora** and Srem***
following monasteries were built: Grgeteg (founded by “Zmaj Ognjeni Vuk” —
Vuk Grgurevic Vrankovic, a member of the last medieval, Brankovic,
dynasty), Fenek (founded by Mother Angelina), Hopovo, Divsa (Divsha),
Krusedol (Krushedol), Sisatovac (Shishatovats, founded by immigrant Zica
monks). In 16th century Slavonia**** we have monasteries: Orahovica,
Pakra, Lepavina and Marca; in other regions (Gorski Kotar and Banija) we
have Gomirje (Gomirye) and Komogovina.
It should be said that
the Patriarchate of Pec was not officially abolished after Turkish
occupation. However there occurred such a situation where the
Archbishopric of Ohrid gradually took over many a diocese of the Pec
Patriarchate under its own spiritual jurisdiction. This was one in full
knowledge of the Turks and often assisted both by them and even by the
Oecumenical Patriarchate in Constantinople. Archbishop Prohor (1525, 1528,
Prochorus) was, as far as this matter was concerned, one of the most
energetic among Ohrid prelates.
Serbian Metropolitan of
Smederevo Paul (“Paul of Smederevo”) resisted this infringement into
Serbian spiritual jurisdiction as much as he could. He even succeeded in
renewing the Patriarchate of Pec and proclaiming himself the Patriarch.
However, this was a very brief affair, since two Councils of Ohrid
condemned him in 1532 and 1541 and, as a consequence, had him banished
from Pec.
It has been recorded
that many Christian Orthodox Serbs converted to Islam, most of them under
duress, and some in order to keep prior or attain new privileges. An
unknown contemporary poet said: “Those that were cowardly or greedy became
converted…” The population was particularly disturbed by the so-called
“bloody duty”, i.e. enslavement of young Serbian boys. After being
abducted from their families they were brought up and educated in Islamic
tradition far away from their families and raised to form crack troops of
the Turkish army — the janizaries, who, unwittingly, did most of their
famed atrocities on the population inhabiting the very regions they
themselves originally came from. A contemporary popular saying went: “A
convert is worse than a Turk”.
Turkish atrocities and violence against Christians
The renewed
Patriarchate of Pec existed for almost two hundred years (1557-1766). By
mid 16th century, Balkans, and especially those areas inhabited by Serbs,
became a transitory region for conquering Turkish armies going west, and
the Ottoman authorities wanted to appease Orthodox Serbs by granting
concessions to their Church. It is for this reason that Patriarchate of
Pec was renewed with Turkish approval. The Grand Vizier Mehmed (Muhammad)
Sokolovic (Sokolovich), a janizary of Serbian stock who became very
successful in climbing the Ottoman social and political ladder, played the
key role in this affair. It was through his assistance that the
Patriarchate was renewed in 1557, its first Patriarch being Vezier’s very
brother — Makarije Sokolovic (1557-1571, Macarius). This was a grand
occasion for Serbs and their Church, Patriarchate of Pec spiritually
united all Serbian ethnic regions into one. Even parts of Bulgaria and
Hungary came under its jurisdiction. Old dioceses were renewed and new
ones formed: Dioceses of Trebinje (Trebinye) in Herzegovina, Pozega
(Pozhega) in Slavonia, Marca, Jenopolis, Vrsac (Vrshats), Budim … All in
all there were around 40 dioceses in the wide region covering the area
from Budim (Hungary) to the river Drim in Albania, and from Western
Bulgaria to the Adriatic Sea.
Serbian Church now
functional under now more favourable circumstances when compared to those
of the early years of Ottoman rule. New monasteries and churches were
allowed to be built (Canyon of Ovcar [Ovchar] and Kablar monasteries), and
many old ones restored and redecorated (Pec, Gracanica). Political status
of the Serbian Patriarch was much similar to the one held by Patriarch of
Constantinople. He was proclaimed “People’s Leader” and bestowed
considerable “worldly” authority over his Christian subjects. He gave
suggestions to the Porte concerning elections of metropolitans and
bishops, judged disputes among priests, raised Sultan’s annual taxes,
solved marital disputes among Christians, held inheritance rights to the
property of all those who became deceased but had no lawful heirs.
Patriarch was a person of high standing both in the eyes of the Turks and
among the Christian population. He travelled on horseback always
accompanied by an escort and his official dignitaries. It, thus, happened
that under the Turkish yoke the Church and the Patriarch assumed, out of
necessity, that role which was normally held by the State and the
“worldly” rulers among the Serbs.
All patriarchs
belonging to Sokolovic family tended to have correct relationships with
Turks. However, although general living conditions were somewhat easier
than at the beginning of Turkish occupation, Patriarch Jovan Kantul
(1529-1613, John) changed this previously established attitude of his
predecessors since both he and the people in general recognised the fact
that the nation was still clearly enslaved. It was thought that nothing
but freedom gained through a popular uprisings could set things to the
right track again. This attitude prevailed by the end of the 16th century
and continued to be in effect until freedom was gained three centuries
later.
In 1594 an uprising of
Serbs occurred in the region of Banat. Rebels carried flags bearing icons
of St. Sava. A similar uprising broke out in the vicinity of Pec, and one
occurred in Herzegovina in 1597. All of these were brutally put down by
Turks and were ended in a terrible bloodbath. St. Theodore, Bishop of
Vrsac and leader of Banat rebels, was skinned alive. As a measure of
retaliation one of Turkish local rulers, Sinnan Basha, ordered relics of
St. Sava to be burned in Beograd on April 27th/May 10th 1594. Patriarch
Jovan Kantul also paid a heavy price — he was executed in Constantinople
in 1613.
Patriarch Pajsije
Janjevac (1614-1647, Paysiye Yanyevats) realized that open rebellion could
not set things right. He turned for aid to Imperial Russia which had for a
while already been a source of literary (service books) and some financial
support. As the head of the Church he worked earnestly to strengthen the
faltering spirit of the nation through constant celebration of Liturgy and
by intense writing. He wrote the biography of the last Serbian emperor,
Uros, and composed a Service to him. He also wrote the Service to St.
Symon (King Stefan Prvovencani).
Patriarch Gavrilo I
(1648-1655, Gabriel) also died a martyr’s death whilst in Turkish
captivity.
Great Serb Migration in 1690
Serbian people and the
Church suffered heavy consequences during and after the Austro-Turkish war
when the throne of Pec was occupied by Patriarch Arsenije III Carnojevic
(1674-1690; +1706, Charnoyevich). In 1683 Turks arrived at the threshold
of Central Europe by besieging the City of Vienna itself. A relief army
arrived from Poland, lifted the siege, and general Piccolomini drove the
Turks back all the way to Skoplje in Macedonia. This victory encouraged
the Serbs and the Patriarch himself to join the Austrians. However, a
successful Turkish counteroffensive forced them into the so-called “Great
Migration”, Patriarch Arsenije led some 40,000 men, women and children
north of rivers Sava and Danube. Austrian Emperor Leopold I had agreed to
accept this large wave of refugees and to extend written guarantees of
religious and national freedoms to them. Subsequent history of Serbs in
Austria and Hungary was marked by their struggle to effectuate their
guaranteed freedoms, since Austria, as a Roman Catholic state, did its
utmost to denationalise and convert Orthodox Serbs living on her
territory.
During the following
Austro-Turkish war of 1737-1739 Serbs, unfortunately, suffered a similar
fate. Patriarch of Pec Arsenije IV Jovanovic-Sakabenta (1728-1737,
Yovanovich Shakabenta) prematurely hoped that final freedom could be
achieved soon and consequently decided to lead his people to revolt
against the Turks. Austrian support fell short and he was forced to lead
yet another great wave of refugees north of rivers Sava and Danube. This
time Turkish revenge was even more ruthless than before. Monasteries and
churches were torched, Bogorodica Ljeviska of Prizren was turned into a
mosque, monastery Manasija church was turned into a horse stable, and
great numbers of Serbs were taken into slavery to be sold in slave markets
of Europe and Asia. There also occurred another great wave of forcible
conversions to Islam …
If a question is put as
to how the Church survived under Turkish rule at all, it could be easily
answered that the Church had to suffer the same fate as the ordinary
Serbian folk. As in all Islamic states Christians in Serbia had lesser
rights than Mohammedans (which is a case even today in Islamic countries).
There were very few priests and monks, churches and monasteries. According
to Islamic laws Turks did not allow new churches to be built and allowed
old ones to be restored only with great reluctance and numerous
obstructions on their part. Many churches were turned into mosques and
some had been torn down, the remaining building material being used to
build mosques or public buildings. People were allowed to gather in
churches and monasteries only on rare occasions and priests and monks
could openly satisfy people’s religious needs only by special permission.
This caused such a situation where heads of families had to assume roles
of domestic priests in their families. This is why the celebration of the
family baptismal, or patron saint day, (Krsna Slava) assumed great
importance in Serbian tradition — it came as a sort of substitute for all
other religious practices. Normal ecclesiastic tradition was often
substituted by a practice of local popular customs.
Only monasteries that
survived, apart from the most famous ones founded by members of the
Nemanjic dynasty, were those that had originally been built in remote,
inaccessible regions. During times of relative calm, main monasteries
remained strong spiritual centres even under Turkish rule and were given
some sort of autonomy in exchange for annual payments of taxes to the
authorities. People went on pilgrimages to venerate the remaining relics
of national saints — those of St. Simeon in Studenica; St. Sava in
Mileseva; St. Stefan Decanski in Decani; Holy Knez Lazar in Ravanica;
those of saints belonging to Brankovic dynasty in Krusedol etc. Regular
Church services were carefully observed in all these monasteries and most
of the monks were at least semi-literate, doing their utmost to spread
literacy among people whilst tutoring them on faith and spiritual life.
They spoke of and wrote about the glorious Serbian past and their grand
and most significant rulers and predecessors. Except for the above
mentioned national saints, centuries of reverence were also devoted to St.
Paraskeva, St. Joanikije Devicki, St. Basil of Ostrog and
others.
In such difficult times
only priests and monks were able to do anything to promote spirituality
and culture in general. Thus, hieromonk Macarius was able to procure in
Venice a printing press for Djuradj Crnojevic (George Tsrnoyevich) in
Cetinje (Cetinye). It was in use from 1493 to 1495 and became renowned for
the first printing press among the South Slavs. Sometime later, during the
first half of 16th century, printing presses were also in use in other
Serbian monasteries such as: Rujan (1537), Gracanica (1539), Mileseva
(1544), Mrksina Crkva (1566) etc. Wherever and whenever it was possible,
manuscripts and illuminations continued to be produced.
As far as church
building and fresco painting were concerned, previously very rich donating
activity was greatly diminished during Turkish rule. That which was
accomplished was done according to relatively limited means of
contemporary donators. Iconography was mainly based on imitations of older
art, although there were several very talented iconographers as, for
example, Longin or Georgije Mitrofanovic (George
Mytrophanovich).
Christians in the Balkans tried many times to liberate themselves from the Turkish rule. Although Ottoman Empire ruled Serbia for 5 centuries the Christian people have never lost their feeling that they live under the foreign rule and foreign and unfriendly Islamic civilization
After the “Great
Migration” of Serbs of 1690 it is possible to follow the development of
the Serbian Church and national history not only within borders of the
Ottoman Empire, but also in wide regions of the Austrian Empire. Popular
living conditions in regions under Turkish rule, and conditions under
which the Church functioned there, were even more difficult now.
Population constantly decreased in numbers. Two patriarchs were compelled
to flee into Austria and Turks lost all confidence in Serbian clerics.
Greeks immediately exploited this adverse state of affairs. After
Patriarch Arsenije IV Sakabenta migrated to Austria, the Church in
Constantinople asserted pressure on the Porte to install mainly Greeks,
such as Joanikije Karadza (1739-1746), as Patriarch of Pec. In the short
period of time between 1752 and 1765 eight patriarchs sat on the throne of
Pec, five of whom were Greek. Patriarchate debts accumulated in
Constantinople and no one was willing to pay them back. Last Serbian
national to be elected patriarch before abolishment of the Patriarchate of
Pec was Vasilije Brkic (1763-1765, Basil Brkych). He was banished to
Cyprus as an enemy of Turkish State. He was succeeded by a Greek, Kalinik
II (1765-1766), who performed an unprecedented deed — he resigned his
title of Patriarch of Pec and, with other five bishops, sent a petition to
the Oecumenical Patriarch in Constantinople asking for the abolishment of
the Patriarchate of Pec. Accumulated Patriarchate debts were quoted as the
main reason for this motion. Accordingly, Patriarch of Constantinople
convinced the Sultan to abolish the Patriarchate of Pec (September 11th
1766), and place its dioceses under the spiritual jurisdiction of the
Church in Constantinople: “From now on even the very name of Patriarchate
of Pec is to be considered abolished, and its reestablishment forbidden
under any circumstances”. Same fate was to be suffered by the
Archbishopric of Ohrid only a year later. This state of affairs lasted all
the way through until 1920 when the dignity of a Patriarchate was restored
to the Serbian Church.
Abolishment of the
Patriarchate announced grave days ahead for the Serbian Church. All
Serbian bishops were removed and Greek nationals brought to take their
place. These newcomers were called Phanariots (after Phanar — that part of
Constantinople, i.e. Istanbul, where the Oecumenical Patriarch resided
together with most of the well-to-do Greek nationals in the city) and were
remembered for their lack of consideration for the welfare of Serbs under
their jurisdiction. Most of them did not even speak Serbian.
Manasija
Monastery - a famous scriptorium of the 15th century and a spiritual
center
in subsequent times.
After the forcible
abolishment of the Pec Patriarchate Serbian Church found itself ina
very grave situation in relation to both spiritual and political
circumstances under which it was compelled to function. Serbian State had
ceased to function centuries before. Serbian lands and Serbian ethnic
territories existed, but were divided up between the Ottomans, the
Austrians, the Hungarians and the Venetians. This tragic state of affairs
was inflated by the loss of Church independence originally gained by St.
Sava in 1219. Both the Church and the general population found themselves
in very dire straits, i.e. circumstances much harder than what they used
to be beforehand. Two very difficult and important tasks lay ahead:
resurrection of the Serbian State and reestablishment of Church autonomy,
i.e. autocephality. This proved to be a set of very difficult and
torturous tasks to accomplish. It was a process that would last for more
than one hundred years.
After the abolishment
of the Patriarchate life of the Serbian Church could be followed in
several regions populated by the Serb nation. Until its reestablishment in
1920 under auspices of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, there existed several
mutually independent Church units of the Serbian Church: Metropolitanate
of Karlovac, Metropolitanate of Montenegro (Crna Gora), Serbian Churches
in Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, South Serbia and
Macedonia.
(i) Serbia Between
1766 and 1830 Serbian lands under Turkish rule had bishops who were
Greek nationals. They were popularly called “Phanariots” and were reputed
as interested neither for the real needs and problems of Serbs under
Turkish rule, nor for Serb inclinations towards freedom, which also
included a need for domestic and not foreign bishops. Phanariots advocated
Greek as the official language to be used in church services and often
safeguarded Ottoman rather than Serbian interests. Domestic, lower, clergy
was very poorly educated since no one really cared about the problem of
priest education. Greek bishops worried about settling their financial
obligations to the Porte and about their own personal welfare. Spiritual
needs of Serbian people under Turkish rule were something they least cared
about.
The only luck break for
the Serbs was the fact that the “Sick Man of Bosphorus” was entering last
phases of “his” existence. Europe was trying to solve the so-called
“Eastern Question” which posed the problem as to what should happen next
after the expulsion of the Turks from Balkans and Europe. Serbian popular
revolts, the first being in 1804 under leadership of Djordje Petrovic
(George Petrovich) and the second under Milos Obrenovic (Mylosh
Obrenovich) in 1815, forced Turks to recognise Serbian statehood, which
was, thus, renewed for the first time after the fall of Despotate in 1459.
Serbia received the status of an autonomous principality within the
Ottoman Empire. This was the first objective precondition for any plans
concerning the renewal of Serbian Church independence. First step in that
direction was achieved by Knez Milos Obrenovic in 1831 when the
Patriarchate of Constantinople agreed to recognise Serbian Church autonomy
and to remove all Greek bishops that had come into direct conflict with
leaders of popular revolts in Serbia.
The first Metropolitan
of renewed Serbia was Melentije Pavlovic (1831-1833, Melentye Pavlovych).
He had been the archimandrite of monastery Vracevsnica (Vrachevnytsa) and
had come to be known as a prominent fighting figure during both popular
revolts. He encouraged insurgents and personally took part in several
battle against Turks. His example was followed by many other priests such
as: Luka Lazarevic (Luke), Mateja Nenadovic (Matthew Nenadovich), Hadzi
Djera (Dyera), Hadzi Ruvim, St. deacon Avakum (Avaccum), abbot Pajsije and
others. Metropolitan Melentije eventually came into conflict with Knez
Milos and, subsequently, died a sudden death. However, he came to be
popularly remembered as a great patriot always ready to suffer martyrdom
in order to promote national interests.
Metropolitan Petar
Jovanovic (1833-1859, Peter Yovanovych) came from the Metropolitanate of
Karlova. He had solid theological and general educational background and,
as such, he tackled the difficult problem of reestablishment of Church
constitution. Emerging from enslavement by the Turks, Serbian Church
needed to institute Church law, Church administration, priest education,
general education etc. Metropolitan Petar took care of all this and more.
He managed to procure educational books, attract teaching staff from
abroad, and send many a young talent to receive good education in Russia.
He was supported in his efforts both by Knez Milos and Knez Aleksandar.
Many churches and monasteries were restored through Serbia. There was a
general sense of enthusiasm to be felt everywhere — centuries old dream of
freedom was starting to come true.
Year 1859 marked a
highpoint of a long-standing dynastic dispute in Serbia. After spending a
considerable number of years in emigration, the aged Knez Milos returned
and initiated the brief period of his second rule (1859-1860).
Metropolitan Petar had to leave Serbia for political reasons and was
succeeded by his ex-student, then Bishop of Sabac (Shabats) Mihailo
Jovanovic (Michael Yovanovych), who was a graduate of Kiev Seminary. He
was head of the Serbian Church for quite a long time (1859-1881; 1889-1898
and managed to continue the productive work of his predecessor. He
especially concentrated upon Church and spiritual education, priest
education and textbook writing, and became renowned for his sermons. He
was a prominent advocate of national interests in those Serbian lands
remaining under Turkish rule (South Serbia, Macedonia, Bosnia, Herzegovina
etc.). It was during his achipastoral rule that Serbia was internationally
recognised as a sovereign state (Berlin Congress of 1878), and that
Serbian Church became autocephalous again (1879). However, Metropolitan
Mihailo Jovanovic soon came into conflict with the Serbian government on
the matters of State involvement in purely ecclesiastical affairs, and
government inclination towards a pro-Austrian foreign policy. He was
compelled to leave the country (1883-1889). Serbian became a Kingdom in
1882 and thus, under King Milan Obrenovic (Obrenovich), managed to renew
its centuries old status for the first time after the battle of
Kosovo.
The exiled Metropolitan
Mihailo toured the Holy Land, the Holy Mount, also spending five years in
Russia. After King Milan abdicated in 1888, Metropolitan returned to
Serbia and continued his previous work: organisation of Church and parish
life, education of teachers and priests, book writing and publishing,
translation of ecclesiastical literature, creation of welfare foundations
etc. He was very enthusiastic about the idea of pan-Slavism in the Slav
South, and was renowned as such both domestically and
internationally.
Church of the Kingdom
of Serbia was known at the beginning of the 20th century as
Metropolitanate of Beograd which, with its few dioceses, achieved great
spiritual rehabilitation in every sense of the word. Together with its
people it suffered great tribulation and losses during Balkan Wars
(1912-1913) and the First World War (1914-1918). The liberation of 1918
was received with optimism as was the reestablishment of the Serbian
Patriarchate.
(ii) Metropolitanate of
Karlovac was initiated within the Austrian Empire after the Great
Migration of 1690. The immigrant Patriarch Arsenije III Carnojevic
constructed the very first Serbian Church organisation in Austria. It was
based upon privileges that he and the people received from Emperor Leopold
I in 1690, 1691 and 1695. This Church organisation was first known as the
Metropolitanate of Krusedol since it was based in Krusedol monastery from
1708 to 1713. It changed its name to Metropolitanate of Karlovac after
1713 when the See was moved to Sremski Karlovci. From the point of its
very initiation, Metropolitanate of Karlovac came under the spiritual
jurisdiction of Patriarchate of Pec, and Patriarch of Pec, Kalinik I,
granted it autonomy.
It was not an easy task
to organise either ordinary or Church life in Austria. It was a matter of
safeguarding both the interests of national identity and those of the
Orthodox faith under difficult circumstances of living in a very strong
Roman Catholic state. From its very arrival into Austria, the Serbian
Church came under pressure to form a Union with Rome. There were areas
where this Union was forced upon it (Diocese of Marca). Bishops and
priests had to cope with this very difficult problem and they turned to
Russian for support. It is from Russia that the Serbian Church in Austria
received her service books and other necessary items. Teachers (Suvorov
and Kozachinski) came from Russia and formed first Serbian schools.
Austria did not look favourably on these connections of its Serb subjects
with Orthodox Russia, and it did everything it could to have them
obstructed or, even, prevented from occurring. It exerted political,
educational, state, and ecclesiastical pressure in order to cancel
privileges originally given to the Serbs and to have these newcomers
subjugated to Hungarian and Austrian nobles. It also encouraged some
tendencies within the Roman Catholic Church to convert ordinary Serbian
folk to Roman Catholicism.
Serving as frontier
soldiers, Serbs protected those areas of the Austrian Empire that bordered
with Turkey and, when needed as such, their privileges remained intact.
When Empress Maria Theresa abolished part of this military frontier as an
example of her conciliatory policy towards Hungarian nobles who demanded
this of her, Serbs became very dissatisfied with their new status of
Hungarian nobles’ serfs. Some one hundred thousand of them decided to
emigrate to Russia and they did so between 1752 and 1764. They settled in
those areas that form part of today’s Ukraine naming these regions
Slavjanoserbija (Slavyanoserbia) and Nova Serbija. Unfortunately, it
didn’t take long for them to blend completely into their Russian
surroundings and loose their national identity. Metropolitan Pavle
Nenadovic (Paul Nenadovich), a contemporary to those developments, did
everything he could to help his people and dissuade them from migrating
en-masse into uncertainty. He also resisted all external coercive pressure
to form Union with the Roman Catholic Church. He prevented forced Union of
Romanian Orthodox in North Hungary, but was unable to resist the same
happening to his own people in the diocese of Marca. Serbs in Zumberak
fared the same. This Union was achieved with the aid of military
authorities and by physical mistreatment of Orthodox clergy and their
faithful. However, there were examples of solidarity of the common Roman
Catholic folk with their Orthodox neighbours. Some Croatian nationals
joined the Serbian revolt of 1755 in Severin. In their petition to Empress
Maria Theresa they asked her to allow peaceful coexistence of Roman
Catholic and Orthodox faithful and prevent the Union since it only brought
confusion and calamity to all sides in question. This indicates that the
Orthodox did not suffer by the actions of ordinary Roman Catholic folk,
but by those of the specially prepared Roman Catholic “missionaries”. They
were the ones who baptised those already baptised and who did all they
could to eradicate national and Orthodox identity among Serbs, using
methods that were all but Christian in their character.
The entire history of
the Metropolitanate of Karlovac was marked by its struggle to maintain
Orthodox faith and national identity among the Serbs who were a minority
in the great Austrian Empire. Specially noted for their efforts in this
direction were metropolitans Pavle Nenadovic (1749-1768) and Stefan
Stratimirovic (1790-1836, Stratymirovich). They both did all they could
for the Church and the faithful. Stratimirovic even helped revolts in
Serbia in 1804 and 1815. The only long-term guarantee for survival proved
to be maintenance of national culture and education through constitution
of and support to Serbian schools. A Gymnasium was opened in Sremski
Karlovci and in 1794 a Seminary. This Seminary educated Orthodox priests
throughout 19th century and not only for the needs of the Karlovci
Metropolitanate. This period also saw a flourishing of monasteries
throughout the Metropolitanate. Books were printed, periodicals (Matica
Srpska) and newspapers published. Many a famous iconographer, painter,
writer and poet marked this age of Serbian Karlovci-style culture. All
this happened under the auspices of the Church, which proved to offer the
most solid guarantee for the spiritual and physical survival of the Serbs
as a nation.
During the
archipastoral rule of Metropolitan Josif Rajacic (1842-1848-1861, Joseph
Rayachich), Metropolitanate of Karlovac rose to the level of a
Patriarchate and Serbs received a sort of political autonomy (Srpska
Vojvodina, Voyvodina) within the Austrian Empire.
In two centuries of its
autonomous existence Metropolitanate of Karlovci was organised on the
basis of privileges originally received from Austrian authorities.
Position of Serbs and their Church was specifically regulated in reforms
brought about first by Empress Maria Theresa and later by Emperor Joseph
II. Serbian Church-public Council of 1769 regulated its status in a
special paper named Regulament and, later, in Deklaratorij published in
1779. These acts regulated the life of the Metropolitanate of Karlovci all
the way through until 1868. Emperor Frances Joseph I published a special
edict regulating Serbian Church affairs and this edict was in force until
the unification of Serbian Churches in 1920.
Austrian Empire was
outlived both by its Serbian nationals and by their Church. For more than
two centuries Serbs succeeded to organise themselves both nationally and
ecclesiastically. City of Sremski Karlovci became to be known as the
“Serbian Zion” and Novi Sad as “Serbian Athens”. Serbian schools: the
Seminary, Gymnasium, Teacher Training Schools, and others, maintained the
same educational standard expected of all state run schools within the
Hapsburg Empire. As businessmen, writers, artists etc., Serb nationals
formed a distinguished part of the society they lived and functioned in,
and yet they succeeded in maintaining their specific spiritual and
national identity.
(iii) Metropolitanate of Montenegro (Crna Gora) After several
unsuccessful attempts, Turks managed in 1499 to crush the resistance of
the ruling Crnojevic (Tsrnoyevich) Dynasty and annex their domain which
covered a good part of today’s Montenegro. Turks never managed to subdue
all Serbian mountain dwellers in these regions. However, most of them did
pay taxes to the Ottomans, but since these payments were never regular
this came to be the cause of many conflicts with the oppressor. Most
serious point of concern was the fact that as time went on, quite a
considerable number of Montenegrins converted to Islam. This became a very
serious matter until definite action was taken at the beginning of 18th
century during the reign of Metropolitan Danilo Petrovic Njegos (Daniel
Petrovich Nyegosh) to solve this problem. The event of the so-called
“purge of converts” inspired Njegos to write his poem “Gorski Vijenac”
(“Mountain Wreath”). Serbs fought several battles against Turks, most
famous of which was the battle of Carevi Laz in 1712. It ended as a major
defeat for the Turks. However, Ottoman retaliation was fierce and it was
during this period of time that they sacked the monastery of Cetinje. This
initiated Montenegrin links with Imperial Russia, which was to become the
main benefactor of Montenegro by giving it both economic and political
support.
His nephew Metropolitan
Sava, who lacked fighting spirit, succeeded metropolitan Danilo. He came
to be aided by his nephew, the future Metropolitan Vasilije (Basil), in
the task of running the country and the Church. Vasilije visited Russia
three times on Church and State business and he even died there in 1766.
Abolishment of the Patriarchate of Pec in 1766 was a great loss both for
the Church and the Montenegrin population in general. Confusion brought
about by difficult times was exploited by a mysterious usurper calling
himself Scepan Mali (Schepan Maly, Stephen the Little) who falsely claimed
to be the assassinated Russian Emperor Peter III. He, somehow, even
managed to be installed as the ruler of Montenegro (1767-1773), but was
himself assassinated by a Greek mercenary of the Turks. Metropolitan Sava
then continued ruling both the Church and the State. He made several
unsuccessful attempts to re-establish the Patriarchate of Pec and, as his
predecessors, leaned heavily on Russian support.
Metropolitan Sava was
succeeded by Metropolitan Petar I Petrovic (St. Petar of Cetinje). He was
very obstinate in achieving reconciliation between, and unification of,
Montenegrin families (clans), which were often in open conflict with each
other. Metropolitan Petar II Petrovic-Njegos (+1851) is renowned not only
as a spiritual and stately ruler of Montenegro, but also as one of the
most famous Serbian bards of poetry. All metropolitans ruled form the
Cetinje monastery where they managed both Church and State affairs. They
lived in very difficult times: there was always the Turkish menace, and
then there was also the difficult task of educating the ordinary folk in
faith and civilised behaviour. Especially persistent on the matter of
popular education were the two last metropolitans. They cared a great deal
about priests and monks, and even managed to have some books
printed.
Metropolitan Petar II
was succeeded by Knez Danilo (1851-1860) who received his hereditary title
from Imperial Russia. He was neither monk nor priest thus ending a long
period of theocratic rule in Montenegro. Montenegrin state increased in
its size after wars of 1876 and 1878, and another diocese was established
there – the Diocese of Zahumlje (Zahumlye) and Ras. As was the case with
Serbia, Montenegro gained its international recognition as a sovereign
state at the Congress of Vienna in 1878. In 1920 Montenegro, i.e.
Metropolitanate of Montenegro, became part of the re-established Serbian
Patriarchate.
(iv) Orthodox Serbs in
Dalmatia For centuries, Serb spiritual
centers in Dalmatia were monasteries such as Krka, Krupa and Dragovic
(Dragovich). After re-establishment of the Pec Patriarchate they came
under the spiritual jurisdiction of Metropolitans of Dabro-Bosna who were
appointed Patriarch’s “Exarchs for the Whole of Dalmatia”. After the Peace
of Karlovac (1699) a
